Preface xvii Introduction xxv Part I Systems Thinking in the Disciplines 1 1 Philosophy 3 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Kant 4 1.3 Hegel 8 1.4 Pragmatism 9 1.5 Husserl and Phenomenology 10 1.6 Radical Constructivism 11 1.7 Conclusion 12 2 The Physical Sciences and the Scientific Method 15 2.1 Introduction 15 2.2 The Scientific Method and the Scientific Revolution 16 2.3 The Physical Sciences in the Modern Era 19 2.4 The Scientific Method in the Modern Era 21 2.5 Extending the Scientific Method to Other Disciplines 24 2.6 Conclusion 25 3 The Life Sciences 27 3.1 Introduction 27 3.2 Biology 27 3.3 Ecology 35 3.4 Conclusion 40 4 The Social Sciences 43 4.1 Introduction 43 4.2 Functionalism 44 4.3 Interpretive Social Theory 49 4.4 The Sociology of Radical Change 52 4.5 Postmodernism and Poststructuralism 56 4.6 Integrationist Social Theory 59 4.7 Luhmann's Social Systems Theory 62 4.8 Action Research 67 4.9 Conclusion 68 Part II The Systems Sciences 71 5 General Systems Theory 75 5.1 Introduction 75 5.2 von Bertalanffy and General System Theory 75 5.3 von Bertalanffy's Collaborators and the Society for General Systems Research 79 5.4 Miller and the Search for Isomorphisms at Different System Levels 80 5.5 Boulding, Emergence and the Centrality of "The Image" 82 5.6 The Influence of General Systems Theory 85 5.7 Conclusion 86 6 Cybernetics 89 6.1 Introduction 89 6.2 First-Order Cybernetics 91 6.3 British Cybernetics 95 6.4 Second-Order Cybernetics 102 6.5 Conclusion 108 7 Complexity Theory 111 7.1 Introduction 111 7.2 Chaos Theory 112 7.3 Dissipative Structures 117 7.4 Complex Adaptive Systems 119 7.5 Complexity Theory and Management 125 7.6 Complexity Theory and Systems Thinking 136 7.7 Conclusion 144 Part III Systems Practice 147 8 A System of Systems Methodologies 151 8.1 Introduction 151 8.2 Critical or "Second-Order" Systems Thinking 152 8.3 Toward a System of Systems Methodologies 155 8.3.1 Preliminary Considerations 155 8.3.2 Beer's Classification of Systems 155 8.3.3 The Original "System of Systems Methodologies" 157 8.3.4 Snowden's Cynefin Framework 160 8.3.5 A Revised "System of Systems Methodologies" 162 8.4 The Development of Applied Systems Thinking 166 8.5 Systems Thinking and the Management of Complexity 169 8.6 Conclusion 169 Type A Systems Approaches for Technical Complexity 171 9 Operational Research, Systems Analysis, Systems Engineering (Hard Systems Thinking) 173 9.1 Prologue 173 9.2 Description of Hard Systems Thinking 175 9.2.1 Historical Development 175 9.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 177 9.2.3 Methodology 179 9.2.4 Methods 182 9.2.5 Developments in Hard Systems Thinking 184 9.3 Hard Systems Thinking in Action 188 9.4 Critique of Hard Systems Thinking 191 9.5 Comments 196 9.6 The Value of Hard Systems Thinking to Managers 197 9.7 Conclusion 197 Type B Systems Approaches for Process Complexity 199 10 The Vanguard Method 201 10.1 Prologue 201 10.2 Description of the Vanguard Method 203 10.2.1 Historical Development 203 10.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 206 10.2.3 Methodology 209 10.2.4 Methods 211 10.3 The Vanguard Method in Action 212 10.3.1 Check 213 10.3.2 Plan 215 10.3.3 Do 216 10.4 Critique of the Vanguard Method 220 10.5 Comments 224 10.6 The Value of the Vanguard Method to Managers 225 10.7 Conclusion 226 Type C Systems Approaches for Structural Complexity 227 11 System Dynamics 229 11.1 Prologue 229 11.2 Description of System Dynamics 231 11.2.1 Historical Development 231 11.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 233 11.2.3 Methodology 241 11.2.4 Methods 244 11.3 System Dynamics in Action 247 11.4 Critique of System Dynamics 249 11.5 Comments 258 11.6 The Value of System Dynamics to Managers 258 11.7 Conclusion 259 Type D Systems Approaches for Organizational Complexity 261 12 Socio-Technical Systems Thinking 263 12.1 Prologue 263 12.2 Description of Socio-Technical Systems Thinking 264 12.2.1 Historical Development 264 12.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 268 12.2.3 Methodology 276 12.2.4 Methods 279 12.3 Socio-Technical Systems Thinking in Action 280 12.4 Critique of Socio-Technical Systems Thinking 281 12.5 Comments 288 12.6 The Value of Socio-Technical Systems Thinking to Managers 289 12.7 Conclusion 289 13 Organizational Cybernetics and the Viable System Model 291 13.1 Prologue 291 13.2 Description of Organizational Cybernetics 296 13.2.1 Historical Development 296 13.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 299 13.2.3 Methodology 311 13.2.4 Methods 317 13.3 Organizational Cybernetics in Action 320 13.4 Critique of Organizational Cybernetics and the Viable System Model 325 13.5 Comments 337 13.6 The Value of Organizational Cybernetics to Managers 339 13.7 Conclusion 340 Type E Systems Approaches for People Complexity 341 14 Strategic Assumption Surfacing and Testing 343 14.1 Prologue 343 14.2 Description of Strategic Assumption Surfacing and Testing 346 14.2.1 Historical Development 346 14.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 348 14.2.3 Methodology 353 14.2.4 Methods 355 14.3 Strategic Assumption Surfacing and Testing in Action 357 14.4 Critique of Strategic Assumption Surfacing and Testing 360 14.5 Comments 365 14.6 The Value of Strategic Assumption Surfacing and Testing to Managers 366 14.7 Conclusion 367 15 Interactive Planning 369 15.1 Prologue 369 15.2 Description of Interactive Planning 371 15.2.1 Historical Development 371 15.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 375 15.2.3 Methodology 379 15.2.4 Methods 382 15.3 Interactive Planning in Action 384 15.4 Critique of Interactive Planning 388 15.5 Comments 394 15.6 The Value of Interactive Planning to Managers 395 15.7 Conclusion 395 16 Soft Systems Methodology 397 16.1 Prologue 397 16.2 Description of Soft Systems Methodology 401 16.2.1 Historical Development 401 16.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 404 16.2.3 Methodology 411 16.2.4 Methods 420 16.3 Soft Systems Methodology in Action 427 16.4 Critique of Soft Systems Methodology 431 16.5 Comments 441 16.6 The Value of Soft Systems Methodology to Managers 442 16.7 Conclusion 443 Type F Systems Approaches for Coercive Complexity 445 17 Team Syntegrity 447 17.1 Prologue 447 17.2 Description of Team Syntegrity 449 17.2.1 Historical Development 449 17.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 450 17.2.3 Methodology 455 17.2.4 Methods 458 17.3 Team Syntegrity in Action 459 17.4 Critique of Team Syntegrity 462 17.5 Comments 468 17.6 The Value of Team Syntegrity to Managers 470 17.7 Conclusion 470 18 Critical Systems Heuristics 471 18.1 Prologue 471 18.2 Description of Critical Systems Heuristics 473 18.2.1 Historical Development 473 18.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 476 18.2.3 Methodology 479 18.2.4 Methods 484 18.3 Critical Systems Heuristics in Action 485 18.4 Critique of Critical Systems Heuristics 490 18.5 Comments 502 18.6 The Value of Critical Systems Heuristics to Managers 508 18.7 Conclusion 509 Part IV Critical Systems Thinking 511 19 Critical Systems Theory 515 19.1 Introduction 515 19.2 The Origins of Critical Systems Theory 516 19.2.1 Critical Awareness 517 19.2.2 Pluralism 519 19.2.3 Emancipation or Improvement 522 19.3 Critical Systems Theory and the Management Sciences 524 19.4 Conclusion 528 20 Critical Systems Thinking and Multimethodology 531 20.1 Introduction 531 20.2 Total Systems Intervention 540 20.2.1 Background 540 20.2.2 Multimethodology 541 20.2.3 Case Study 545 20.2.4 Critique 553 20.3 Systemic Intervention 558 20.3.1 Background 558 20.3.2 Multimethodology 559 20.3.3 Case Study 562 20.3.4 Critique 565 20.4 Critical Realism and Multimethodology 568 20.4.1 Background 568 20.4.2 Multimethodology 570 20.4.3 Case Study 572 20.4.4 Critique 572 20.5 Conclusion 576 21 Critical Systems Practice 577 21.1 Prologue 577 21.2 Description of Critical Systems Practice 579 21.2.1 Historical Development 579 21.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 581 21.2.3 Multimethodology 593 21.2.4 Methodologies 601 21.2.5 Methods 604 21.3 Critical Systems Practice in Action 607 21.3.1 North Yorkshire Police 607 21.3.2 Kingston Gas Turbines 617 21.3.3 Hull University Business School 621 21.4 Critique of Critical Systems Practice 632 21.5 Comments 637 21.6 The Value of Critical Systems Practice to Managers 638 21.7 Conclusion 638 Conclusion 641 References 645 Index 679